Weight Loss & Maintenance
This goal refers to people with a BMI >25 attempting to reach/maintain their ideal weight. While interventions that work for people with a BMI >25 may also work for people with a lower BMI, the context is often sufficiently different that this isn't assured.
Weight Loss & Maintenance falls under theFat Losscategory.
Last Updated:May 1, 2023
Marasmus is a disease of caloric restriction, but you most likely don't have it. Your metabolic rate can definitely slow down during weight loss, but it will never slow to the point where it causes you to gain weight; in this sense, "starvation mode" is a myth.
For the purpose of this article, 'Starvation Mode' is defined as a concept where your metabolic rate declines during the process of caloric restriction or weight loss to such a degree that further weight loss becomes impossible or weight gain occurs.
Starvation mode, according to the above definition, is for all practical intents and purposes a myth. It seems to have originated from the Minnesota Starvation Experiment[1], where participants were given 50% of their maintenance calories for months. They lost weight until their body simply had no source for ample calories (fat storage or food intake).
The notion that weight loss can be outright halted secondary to caloric restriction is currently unsupported, although a reduction of metabolic rate may occur. The process of losing weight itself can reduce caloric expenditure as all tissue requires some energy to exist, and most of the reduction in energy expenditure from weight loss can be accounted for from this.[2]
In regards to case studies, there is one recorded report of an obese man fasting for 382 days (medically supervised) which was associated with a lowered metabolic rate but not a cessation of weight loss due to it.[3]
The number of calories you burn is based on your resting metabolic rate, the thermic effect of food, and physical activity.
The words “slow metabolism” are incredibly overused. As in “I just can’t lose weight anymore; my metabolism has really slowed down.” Or “I’m not like you, I can’t just eat everything I want. Your metabolism’s faster than mine.”
Before blaming weight-loss failures on metabolic rates, let’s take a comprehensive look at how metabolic rates differ between people, what makes up your metabolic rate, and how all that changes when dieting or exercising.
What exactly goes into metabolism?
To understand metabolism, you have to understand just a few basic terms. The energy your body burns in a day is called your total daily energy expenditure (TDEE), which has three components: resting metabolic rate, thermic effect of food, and activity energy expenditure.
1. Resting metabolic rate (RMR)
Technically, “metabolism” is the sum of all the chemical processes that keep your body alive. Colloquially, most people think of “metabolism” as the energy burn from the resting metabolic rate (RMR), which is the energy your body uses to stay alive, accounting for about about 70% of the TDEE of sedentary people.[4][5] And yes, there do exist people with a “fast metabolism” — a.k.a. high RMR — but their metabolic advantage isn’t as overwhelming as you’d think.
Most people (68%) stay within just 8% of the average RMR, and the vast majority (96%) within 16%. In other words, 96% of people stay within 200–300 kcal of the average RMR.[6]
Your RMR is mostly determined by your fat-free mass (FFM), even though most of it is water and thus not metabolically active. Your brain and visceral organs add up to only 12% of the active components of your FFM (even less if you’re muscular), yet they use a lot of energy: 200–440 kcal/kg/day (91–200 kcal/lb/day). By comparison, your skeletal muscle at rest requires only 13 kcal/kg/day (6 kcal/lb/day), which is still a lot more than the 4.5 kcal/kg/day (2 kcal/lb/day) you need to maintain your fat stores.[5]
It turns out that your natural RMR is a poor predictor of future weight gain,[7][8] which suggests that people with a high RMR compensate for burning more by eating more. Conversely, people with a low RMR may compensate for burning less by eating less — with one notable exception. One meta-analysis of 12 studies showed that high rates of weight regain were associated with a 3–5% lower RMR in formerly obese compared with control individuals.[9] But was the RMR of these formerly obese people their “natural” RMR? Probably not.…
Contrary to popular belief, obesity is associated with a high metabolic rate[10], as a heavier body needs more energy to do just about everything, from running down to breathing. However, people who slash down calories to lose a lot of weight very fast risk slowing their metabolism to below its “natural” level — maybe permanently. They feel hungry all the time, as their body fights to recover the energy stores (mostly, the fat) it lost too fast.
RMR can also slow as you age, since the older you get, the less FFM you have and the fewer energy-generating mitochondria dwell in your cells. It can also differ according to sex (not only do men normally have a higher FFM:BF ratio, but their organs consume more calories)[11], genetics, and possibly gut bacteria. However, aside from your FFM, the factor that has the greatest impact on your RMR is temperature — both internal and external.
Even when both you and the weather are fine, you spend some ⅔ of your RMR to maintain a constant body temperature. To increase your core temperature by one degree celsius can require your RMR to go up by 10–13%.[12][13] That’s why cold exposure (through ice baths and other methods) has been promoted for weight loss.
Although people can have a fast or slow metabolism, extremes are pretty rare, often resulting from disease or prior obesity. Around 96% of people stay within 200–300 kcal of the average metabolism. Moreover, resting metabolic rates (RMRs) are not well correlated with weight gain.
2. Thermic effect of food (TEF)
Some of the calories in the food you ingest will be used to digest, absorb, and metabolize the rest of the food, and some will end burned off as heat. The overall process is known indifferently as thermic effect of food (TEF), dietary induced thermogenesis (DIT), or specific dynamic action (SDA).
TEF represents about 10% of the caloric intake of healthy adults eating a standard mixed diet,[14] but your actual number will depend on various factors, such as your lean body mass and the size and composition of your meal. The energy required to digest each macronutrient (its TEF) can be expressed as a percentage of the energy provided by this macronutrient:[15]
- Fat provides 9 Calories per gram, and its TEF is 0–3%.
- Carbohydrate provides 4 Calories per gram, and its TEF is 5–10%.
- Protein provides 4 Calories per gram, and its TEF is 20–30%.
This is one of the reasons why increasing your protein intake can help you lose fat, in addition to preserving your muscle mass when you eat below maintenance.
Protein burns, by far, the most energy of any of the three macronutrients. For that reason, and because of its protective effect on muscle mass, protein plays a central role in many diet templates.
3. Activity energy expenditure (AEE)
Activity energy expenditure (AEE) is the most variable aspect of the TDEE, ranging from 15% in very sedentary individuals to 50% in highly active individuals.[16] It comprises both physical activity (PA) and spontaneous physical activity (SPA), also known as non-exercise activity thermogenesis.
PA covers significant physical effort, such as lifting weights, running, or riding a bike, whereas SPA covers minor, often subconscious acts of daily life,[17] such as fidgeting,[18] chewing, walking short distances, or maintaining one’s posture. Studies in respiratory chambers[19][20] and in free-living environments suggest that SPA accounts for 4–17% of the TDEE, or about 100–700 kcal/day.
Outside your resting metabolic rate and the energy that’s burned by eating food, somewhere between 15 and 50% of your energy burn comes from activity. This activity can be exercise or any of the dozens of activities/movements associated with living.
So what can change someone’s metabolic rate?
1. What can increase your RMR
Exercise! Yes, your resting metabolic rate can increase. The increase in metabolic activity from exercise can outlast your workout. In fact, excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) can last for more than a day after you stop exercising, depending on the duration and intensity of your physical activity.
Aerobic activities and anaerobic activities affect your RMR differently. Aerobic activities tend to burn more calories during exercise, but not a lot afterward (low EPOC). Anaerobic activities, on the other hand, can stoke your furnace for hours after you stopped exercising (high EPOC).[21] In addition, anaerobic activities are better for building muscle, which requires additional energy.[22]
But what happens after you’ve reached a plateau and your muscle mass stops increasing? Do your muscles now require only maintenance levels of energy (13 kcal/kg/day, as we’ve seen), even if you exercise daily? No, they need more, because each time you exercise you damage them and must expend energy to repair them. This still counts as “muscle maintenance” (muscles get constantly destroyed and rebuilt even in sedentary people), but the caloric cost is much higher.
What other methods are there to increase your RMR? As we’ve seen, it’s been estimated that for every degree celsius increase in core temperature, your RMR rises by 10–13%. Therefore, some people wrap themselves in cold packs, turn down the heat in their houses, wear less clothing outside, or even bathe in ice. That would certainly increase their RMR, but these methods can be unsafe if improperly used or if you have certain medical conditions.
We probably need to mention meal frequency, but only to note that there’s no evidence to support the idea that eating more often will increase your RMR.[23][24][25][26] Rather, it’s the total number of calories that determines changes in body weight.
Of course, many are the supplements touted to boost your metabolic rate, but very few actually have evidence in even limited populations. We cover these in greater depth in our Fat Loss Supplement Guide.
One of the most useful fat loss hacks doesn’t address RMR, but rather spontaneous physical activity (SPA). Standing for around half of your work day can burn almost 200 extra kilocalories, compared to sitting.[27] That’s a simple, reliable, sweat-free way to burn calories.
Regular exercise can increase your resting metabolic rate, as can other methods, such as cold exposure (with an eye to safety). Moreover, although taking the stairs rather than the elevator or standing while working won’t noticeably boost your RMR, this kind of small effort can be an easy way to burn more calories each day.
2. What can decrease your RMR
Unfortunately, losing weight translates into a decrease in RMR.[28] The very process of eating below maintenance will reduce your RMR by 5–15%, as your body becomes more sensitive to various hormones and neurotransmitters that regulate how energy is used and expended.[29]
This reaction is known as adaptive thermogenesis.[30] During a hypocaloric diet, not only will your body clamor for more calories (you’ll be hungry), but it will also prevent your cells from spending as much energy (if you play sports, your performance will likely decline).
If you’ve dieted sensibly, your RMR should return to normal when you resume eating enough calories to equal your TDEE. You may also maintain your RMR through periodic “refeeding” days, when you refill your liver glycogen stores and try to convince your body that you’re not really dieting so hard.
Your RMR will decrease as you lose weight, since weighing less means having less body tissue to support (among other factors). Unless you diet too hard for too long, your RMR should normalize after the dieting period is over.
In popular lore, someone with “a fast metabolism” is someone whose high resting metabolic rate (RMR) allows him or her to eat a seemingly infinite amount of food without any fat gain. Past their growing years, such people don’t exist. While some adults do have a higher natural RMR than their peers, interindividual variations tend to stay within a range of 200–300 kcal/day. Moreover, people with higher caloric requirements tend to compensate by eating more, so that one’s natural RMR is a poor predictor of weight gain.
The good news is that if you want to rev up your metabolism, you can. Anaerobic activities can increase your RMR for more than a day; they can also increase your muscle mass, thus further heightening your caloric requirements. They’re a safer way to lose fat than cutting your caloric intake drastically, which can result in your body fighting back, your RMR taking a lasting hit, and endless yo-yo dieting. Yes, to shed fat, you do need to spend more energy than you ingest; but the more severe the deficit, the easier it’ll be to regain whatever fat you lost.
When it comes to figuring out what to eat for weight loss, the most important factor is eating less. When you consume less calories than you spend you will lose weight and the diet that helps you lose weight best will be the one that allows you to consume less calories without causing much distress or lethargy. The key is to pick a diet that you can adhere to.
Your bodyweight depends on your total caloric intake more than on your macronutrient ratios (how many of your calories come from carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and alcohol). Increased caloric intake as an independent variable is more than sufficient to explain the current obesity epidemic,[31] without the need to find a scapegoat, such as high-fructose corn syrup.[32]
A trial in a controlled setting (a metabolic ward) compared several isocaloric diets composed of 15% protein, 15-85% carbohydrate, and 0-70% fat. It concluded that caloric restriction, not macronutrient ratios, determined weight loss.[33] Comparing low- and high-carbohydrate diets over 6 weeks[34] and 12 weeks[35] led to the same conclusion, as did comparing a low-fat/high-protein diet with a high-fat/standard-protein diet.[36]
Another trial in a metabolic ward noted that, in healthy individuals overeating for 8 weeks, caloric intake alone accounted for the increase in body fat. However, caloric expenditure, total weight, and lean mass increased with protein as a percentage of caloric intake.[37] In contrast, a previous study on the impact of protein on weight loss had noted that women lost as much weight on a high-protein diet as on a high-carb diet, but that subjects with high triglycerides lost more fat on the high-protein diet.[38]
In people suffering from hyperinsulinemia,[39][40][41] insulin resistance,[42] or type-2 diabetes,[43][44][45][46] the results are mostly the same: Caloric restriction, not macronutrient ratios, leads to weight loss. Two studies noted, however, that lean mass was better preserved in women (but not men) on a high-protein diet,[40][46] and one study did find a greater weight loss (nearly entirely from fat) in the high-protein group (men and women).[41]
In conclusion, losing weight requires a negative energy balance,[47] which can be obtained by eating less, as we have seen, but also by exercising more.[48][49]
Independent of your diet’s macronutrient ratios, a negative energy balance (consuming fewer calories than your body needs) is responsible for weight loss.
But what about the magic of fad diets?
Many diets, fad or not, do work. This is mainly because they reduce calories.
Several diets restrict your carbohydrate intake. The ketogenic diet is very high in fats, low in proteins, and very low in carbohydrates. The Atkins diet is high in fats, high in proteins, and very low in carbohydrates. The “paleo diet” (hunter-gatherer diet) is high in fats, high in proteins, and low in carbohydrates.
Fats and proteins digest more slowly than carbohydrates, so are more satiating. In addition, most diets (including the three already mentioned) recommend the consumption of foods that are less calorie-dense (more fibers and a higher water content: a pound of broccoli packs less calories than a pound of grains). Finally, carbohydrates participate in the synthesis of serotonin, which can cause cravings in some obese individuals.
You can also refer to our page on how much protein you need per day to figure out the exact number.
Therefore, people on a low-carb diets lose weight because they naturally eat less and avoid the large binges caused by carbohydrate cravings. People on very-low-carb diets can also lose weight very quickly on the short term because the depletion of their glycogen stores leads to the excretion of bound water. That explains why two trials found that people on a low-carb diet had lost more weight than people on a low-fat diet after 6 months but not 12.[50]
Consuming your macronutrients together (balanced diet) or separately (dissociated diet, also known as “food combining”) makes no difference with regard to weight or fat loss.[51]
Since prolonged fasting might increase heat expenditure, diets that manipulate fasting (Intermittent Fasting, Alternate Day Fasting) may have some benefits on the “calories out” side of things. Yet, even here, weight lost is mostly due to the fact that you control eating: It is much harder to overeat in 8 hours than in 16.
Finally, it doesn’t matter when or how many times you eat every day.
A worthwhile read is a major study that showed a low-fat versus a low-carb diet did not matter for weight loss.
For more information on what you need to eat for weight loss, see our Fat Loss Stacks page.
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