Cold Exposure Research Analysis

Q: Can cold exposure help with depression?

Because norepinephrine levels play a significant role in depression,[36] cold exposure has been investigated for some time as an additional treatment alongside standard therapies.[37] The results to date have been encouraging. After adults diagnosed with depression were exposed to 10 cryotherapy sessions in a randomized controlled trial, significant improvements were noted in depression symptoms, disease acceptance, quality of life, and self-assessed mood.[38] These results are consistent with reports of similar results from additional trials.[39][37][40] Although promising, the studies on cold exposure and depression to date have been less rigorous and tend to involve small numbers of participants and short follow-up periods. More research is needed to determine the long-term efficacy and optimal cold exposure protocols for different populations.[40]

Q: Does cold exposure improve glucose metabolism?

Some small trials on cold water immersion found that cold exposure can increase insulin sensitivity[41] and reduce fasting insulin levels.[42][43] However, these studies all involved small numbers of participants and either were observational in design[42][43] or lacked blinding and randomization.[41] Although the research is potentially promising, more rigorous studies are needed to validate these results and to determine whether the effects are clinically relevant. If future studies on cold exposure do end up confirming a significant effect on glucose metabolism, its effect on glucose homeostasis may occur through the increased production of adiponectin, an agent with insulin-sensitivity-enhancing effects.[44]

Q: Is cold exposure an effective intervention for body weight and/or fat loss?

Trials that tested the effects of cold exposure on body weight and fat loss have reported inconsistent results,[45] and the long-term efficacy of cold exposure interventions on obesity has yet to be established.[46] Although research to date points toward a lack of efficacy for cold exposure as a stand-alone long-term weight loss intervention, there have been promising results over smaller timescales. In a randomized controlled trial with 51 participants, 2 hours of daily cold exposure at 17°C (63°F) for 6 weeks resulted in increases in energy expenditure, thermogenesis, and brown adipose tissue (BAT) activation that resulted in a significant amount of fat loss compared to the control participants who were not exposed to the cold.[34] Because people with overweight or obesity tend to have lower amounts of BAT[47][48][49][50][51][52] and cold exposure interventions may improve metabolic health through the expansion of BAT stores and increased nonshivering thermogenesis,[45] more research is warranted to determine whether cold exposure could be helpful alongside other interventions that target obesity.

Q: Can cold water immersion help to promote recovery or enhance adaptation from exercise?

It’s important to make the distinction between recovery and adaptation when considering the effects of cold water immersion postexercise. Part of the stimulus for muscle adaptation to any type of exercise involves damage to the local tissues, to a certain degree, which triggers an inflammatory response and frequently delayed-onset muscle soreness, which results in a temporary reduction in strength and range of motion.[53][54] Recovery is the process of restoring normal function after the training stimulus, such as repairing tissue damage and replenishment of fuel stores. In contrast, exercise adaptation is a longer-developing process that involves physiological changes that better equip the body to handle similar types of training stress in the future. Examples of exercise adaptation include the development of larger, stronger muscles from weight training or the development of increased endurance from endurance training such as running, cycling, or swimming.[55] We consider the effects of postexercise cold water immersion on adaptation from weight training and endurance exercise separately below. Weight training: Postexercise cold water immersion has a suppressive effect on gains in strength and muscle mass from weight training,[56][57][58][59] so it should be avoided for at least several hours after weight training. Although research to better understand the mechanisms involved is still ongoing, cold water immersion seems to have a suppressive effect on the short-term anabolic (muscle-building) signaling processes that are important for triggering longer-term muscle adaptations.[56] Endurance exercise: In contrast to the clear suppressive effect on muscle adaptations after weight training, most studies have found that cold water immersion has negligible effects on adaptation from endurance exercise.[59][60][61][62]

Q: Can cold exposure cause heart attacks?

Cold exposure can potentially cause heart attacks in certain individuals. The cold-shock response activates the sympathetic (“fight or flight”) nervous system, which increases the heart rate and blood pressure. Although this response is important for preserving core body temperature in the cold and is well tolerated by individuals without apparent health conditions, the sudden increase in stress on the heart could potentially cause a heart attack in people who may be vulnerable.[67][27] Vulnerable individuals also may be at an increased risk for sudden cardiac death when the face is submerged during cold water immersion. Although cold water immersion typically involves immersion up to the chest or neck, which triggers the cold shock response and activates the sympathetic nervous system, full-body submersion, in which the face is under water, also triggers the “diving response,” which slows heart rate through a parasympathetic (“rest and digest”) nervous system response. The conflicting signals coming from the two limbs of the autonomic nervous system to the heart have been proposed to cause an “autonomic conflict”, which could potentially cause sudden cardiac death in vulnerable individuals.[24] Although this has yet to be proven, cold water submersion is known to increase the incidence of cardiac arrhythmias in individuals without known health conditions,[68][69][70] and it has been proposed that sudden cardiac death may at times be the actual cause of deaths from cold water submersion that were previously attributed to drowning or hypothermia.[24]

Q: Can white fat be transformed into brown fat by the cold?

Because the types of fat cells (adipocytes) that make up white adipose tissue (WAT) come from a different developmental lineage than the brown adipocytes in brown adipose tissue (BAT), the cells in WAT can’t transform into brown adipocytes.[63] However, in response to regular cold exposure, the adipocytes in WAT undergo a transition to a thermogenesis-capable state by expressing some of the same proteins that facilitate heat production in BAT, such as uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1, also known as thermogenin).[64] The cold-adapted white cells appear light brown in comparison to their non-cold-adapted counterparts and are often referred to as “beige” adipocytes due to their darker color. Papers in the research literature commonly refer to the cold adaptation process in WAT as “beiging” or “browning”.[65]

Q: Do I need to be cold enough to shiver to experience the metabolic-rate-boosting benefits of cold exposure?

Although the intense shivering that is induced by unaccustomed cold exposure can cause significant increases in the metabolic rate, shivering isn’t necessary to get a metabolic boost from cold exposure. In one study, participants who were exposed to mild cold (66°F/19°C) for 10 hours every night for a month had a 42% increase in brown fat volume and a 10% increase in fat metabolic activity.[6] Although the participants in that particular study resided in a clinical research unit for the duration of the study, which allowed the researchers to test a specific set of conditions that may not reflect those of free-living humans, it is clear that humans acclimate to cold temperatures in part through increased brown adipose tissue activity and nonshivering thermogenesis. Additionally, with regular cold exposure, shivering thermogenesis (ST) attenuates (decreases over time with exposure) and nonshivering thermogenesis (NST) increases.[66] The transition from ST to NST can occur relatively fast, as noted in the above study, in which daily cold water immersion for 1 hour in 14°C (57°F) water reduced shivering thermogenesis by 20% without a change in total heat production.[66]

Bill Willis

Cold Exposure

•Last Updated: March 11, 2025

Cold exposure is the practice of voluntarily exposing the body to temperatures that are colder than comfortable, triggers an adaptive stress response. This response is currently a topic of research for benefits on the mind and body.

Dosage

Research feed

Cold Exposure is most often used for

:

Bill Willis, PhD

:

Katie Jantz, RPh, MSc

•

Conni Covington

Last Updated:March 11, 2025

Dosage Information
Research feed
Frequently asked questions
Research breakdown
References

What is cold exposure?

Any method of exposing the body to temperatures that are lower than comfort levels is sufficient for a cold exposure stimulus. However, due to differences in the abilities of water and of air to transfer heat, both the method and duration of exposure and the temperature determine how rapidly the body cools, which ultimately determines the physiological and psychological responses. Examples of cold exposure stimuli include being outdoors in the winter while wearing light clothing, cryotherapy, cold showers, and various forms of cold water immersion (CWI).^[1] Of the various types of cold exposure, CWI has been the topic of the most recent body of research.

Note: Recent literature has tended to use the term “cryotherapy” as a more general, catch-all term for cold exposure. In the context of this page, we use cryotherapy in the more specific sense of whole-body cryotherapy, which involves sitting for 2 to 3 minutes in a chamber in which the air temperature is rapidly lowered to −100°C (−148°F) or lower using liquid nitrogen.^[2]

What are cold exposure’s main benefits?

Cold exposure may have numerous benefits on the mind and body, and these benefits are currently under investigation. However, it is important to note that the way in which the stress from cold exposure interacts with various human body systems isn’t completely understood. More research is needed to determine whether certain effects are beneficial and in which populations or individuals cold exposure may be more or less appropriate.^[1]

Cold exposure has been shown to have 5 primary benefits.

Increased metabolic rate Cold exposure increases the metabolic rate^[3] through thermogenesis in the body, a process in which various metabolic pathways are activated to generate heat in an effort to preserve the core temperature.^[4] Shivering thermogenesis is one of the biggest contributors to an increased metabolic rate during cold exposure and can increase the metabolic rate in the short term by as much as 500%, given a sufficient decrease in the core temperature.^[5] However, nonshivering thermogenesis (NST) is also responsible for an increased metabolic rate as part of the body’s adaptation to regular cold exposure.^[6]

Increased cold tolerance With frequent cold exposure, the body becomes more efficient at activating thermogenic processes to maintain the core temperature. Regular cold exposure in humans increases nonshivering thermogenesis, which increases from baseline in direct proportion to cold tolerance.^[7]^[8] Additionally, studies in Norwegian fishermen — who tend to work in cold environments and are often required to immerse their hands in cold water — have suggested that cold-water finger dexterity may increase with regular cold exposure.^[9]^[10]

Increased focus and energy levels Cold exposure from cold water immersion (CWI) triggers the rapid release of catecholamines such as dopamine and norepinephrine,^[11]^[12]^[13]^[3] which are associated with increased focus, energy, and motivation levels.^[14]^[15] In a randomized controlled trial that tested the effects of cold water immersion for an hour at various temperatures, immersion in 14°C (57°F) water increased levels of the catecholamines norepinephrine and dopamine by 530% and 250%, respectively. The levels of these neurotransmitters remained elevated significantly above baseline at the 2-hour endpoint.^[3] Because catecholamines remained elevated above baseline at the 2-hour endpoint, more research is needed to determine whether they remain elevated throughout the day, which would be consistent with claims that CWI promotes a heightened mental state for several hours postexposure. Additional studies are also needed to determine whether shorter-duration CWI and extended-duration CWI may cause similar increases in catecholamine levels. However, these results are consistent with reports in another trial that the participants felt more alert, focused, and inspired after only 5 minutes of CWI.^[12]

Improved mood The positive effects of cold exposure on mood are related at least in part to its ability to increase norepinephrine levels.^[16] The participants in one trial who were exposed to CWI at 20°C (68°F) for 5 minutes experienced increased positive emotions and reported feeling less nervous and distressed, as well as more active, alert, inspired, proud, and attentive. Although the mechanisms that cold exposure affects to alter mood aren’t currently well understood, the changes in the emotional states of the participants were associated with increased connectivity between the areas of the brain that are involved with self-regulation, emotion, and attention control.^[12]

Increased resilience and mental toughness More research — including randomized controlled trials — is needed to more thoroughly test the associations between the emotional states of participants in cold water immersion studies and increased connectivity between the areas of the brain that are involved with self-regulation, emotion, and attention control. However, these associations are consistent with additional observations suggesting that cold water immersion may increase perceptions of self efficacy, resilience, and mental toughness.^[17] and supported by a larger body of evidence linking cold acclimation to a blunted sympathetic stress response.^[18]^[19]^[19]^[20]^[18]^[21]^[22] The blunting of the “fight or flight” sympathetic stress response, alongside enhanced activation of the “rest and digest” parasympathetic nervous system, may explain the tendency for cold exposure to cause increased perceptions of resilience and mental toughness. In other words, cold exposure may increase “grit” by encouraging a sense of “calm under fire”.

Are there any supplements that can enhance or mimic the benefits of cold exposure?

Can cold exposure help with depression?

Does cold exposure improve glucose metabolism?

Is cold exposure an effective intervention for body weight and/or fat loss?

Can cold water immersion help to promote recovery or enhance adaptation from exercise?

What are cold exposure’s main drawbacks?

Although cold exposure can potentially have benefits, it’s important to be aware that there also are significant potential risks. People who are overly sensitive to cold or who have Raynaud’s phenomenon — a disorder that causes blood vessels to inappropriately constrict in response to cold or stress — should consult with their physician before experimenting with cold exposure. Because people with Raynaud’s experience exaggerated blood vessel constriction in response to cold exposure, there is an increased risk of frostbite and/or hypothermia.

It’s also important to note that the potential drawbacks to cold exposure aren’t limited to people with health conditions that are worsened by cold conditions. The following potential drawbacks of cold exposure can affect anyone if the cold exposure stimulus is too long, too intense, or otherwise inappropriate for an individual’s level of experience and acclimation:^[1]

Hypothermia: Prolonged exposure to cold temperatures can cause the body's core temperature to drop, leading to hypothermia, which can potentially be fatal without timely medical intervention.
Frostbite: Exposure to extreme cold can cause frostbite, which involves the actual freezing of skin and underlying tissues.
Cold shock: Sudden immersion in cold water can cause an involuntary gasp reflex also known as the "cold shock response", which can lead to drowning if the person is unable to swim or keep their head above water.^[23]^[24]

Can cold exposure cause heart attacks?

How does cold exposure work?

The benefits and the risks associated with cold exposure are caused by the stress responses that it triggers, and cold exposure is both a physical and a psychological stressor.^[25] Upon exposure to cold water, temperature-sensing ion channels in the skin called transient receptor potential (TRP) channels are activated, which transmit information to the brain through connected sensory neurons.^[26] This causes the brain to increase the activation of the sympathetic nervous system (involved in regulating the “fight or flight” response), which triggers numerous physiological responses to deal with the cold.^[18]

Immediately after entering uncomfortably cold water, the “cold shock response” is triggered, which causes gasping, hyperventilation, and increased heart rate and blood pressure. The peripheral blood vessels that supply blood to the limbs, hands, and feet also constrict to preserve the core body temperature.^[27] As the core temperature begins to drop, skeletal muscles start to shiver, which creates significant amounts of heat through shivering thermogenesis.^[1]^[3] With repeated cold exposure, shivering thermogenesis gradually diminishes, and the body relies more and more on nonshivering thermogenesis for warming.

Can white fat be transformed into brown fat by the cold?

Do I need to be cold enough to shiver to experience the metabolic-rate-boosting benefits of cold exposure?

What are other names for Cold Exposure?

Note that Cold Exposure is also known as:

Cold exposure
Cold therapy
Cold water immersion
Cryotherapy
Cold showers

Cold Exposure should not be confused with:

Heat Treatment

Dosage information

Benefits have been observed at 6°C degrees below comfort level, which is typically 16°C (60.8 ºF).

Greater metabolic losses are observed with greater intensities of cold exposure.

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Research FeedRead all studies

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Research Breakdown

🚧 Under Renovation 🚧

The information in this section is slated for renovation — it will soon be transformed into a more usable (and readable!) form in the coming months. As such, the text in this section may be out of date and not up to Examine’s current standards for writing style.

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What is cold exposure

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Insulative actions

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NST - Muscle response to cold exposure

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NST - Body fat response to cold exposure

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Shivering thermogenesis

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Other interactions with Cold Exposure and Metabolic Rate

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Significance

References

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^Bleakley CM, Bieuzen F, Davison GW, Costello JTWhole-body cryotherapy: empirical evidence and theoretical perspectives.Open Access J Sports Med.(2014)
^Srámek P, Simecková M, Janský L, Savlíková J, Vybíral SHuman physiological responses to immersion into water of different temperatures.Eur J Appl Physiol.(2000 Mar)
^Brychta RJ, Chen KYCold-induced thermogenesis in humans.Eur J Clin Nutr.(2017 Mar)
^Haman F, Blondin DPShivering thermogenesis in humans: Origin, contribution and metabolic requirement.Temperature (Austin).(2017)
^Lee P, Smith S, Linderman J, Courville AB, Brychta RJ, Dieckmann W, Werner CD, Chen KY, Celi FSTemperature-acclimated brown adipose tissue modulates insulin sensitivity in humans.Diabetes.(2014 Nov)
^DAVIS TRChamber cold acclimatization in man.J Appl Physiol.(1961 Nov)
^van der Lans AA, Hoeks J, Brans B, Vijgen GH, Visser MG, Vosselman MJ, Hansen J, Jörgensen JA, Wu J, Mottaghy FM, Schrauwen P, van Marken Lichtenbelt WDCold acclimation recruits human brown fat and increases nonshivering thermogenesisJ Clin Invest.(2013 Aug)
^LEBLANC J, HILDES JA, HEROUX OTolerance of Gaspe fishermen to cold water.J Appl Physiol.(1960 Nov)
^KROG J, FOLKOW B, FOX RH, ANDERSEN KLHand circulation in the cold of Lapps and North Norwegian fisherman.J Appl Physiol.(1960 Jul)
^Johnson DG, Hayward JS, Jacobs TP, Collis ML, Eckerson JD, Williams RHPlasma norepinephrine responses of man in cold water.J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol.(1977 Aug)
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^Leppäluoto J, Westerlund T, Huttunen P, Oksa J, Smolander J, Dugué B, Mikkelsson MEffects of long-term whole-body cold exposures on plasma concentrations of ACTH, beta-endorphin, cortisol, catecholamines and cytokines in healthy females.Scand J Clin Lab Invest.(2008)
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^Nutt D, Demyttenaere K, Janka Z, Aarre T, Bourin M, Canonico PL, Carrasco JL, Stahl SThe other face of depression, reduced positive affect: the role of catecholamines in causation and cure.J Psychopharmacol.(2007 Jul)
^Ressler KJ, Nemeroff CBRole of norepinephrine in the pathophysiology and treatment of mood disorders.Biol Psychiatry.(1999 Nov 1)
^The Relationship Between Cold-Water-Immersion Activities, Mental Health, Self-Efficacy, Resilience, and Mental Toughness
^Mäkinen TM, Mäntysaari M, Pääkkönen T, Jokelainen J, Palinkas LA, Hassi J, Leppäluoto J, Tahvanainen K, Rintamäki HAutonomic nervous function during whole-body cold exposure before and after cold acclimation.Aviat Space Environ Med.(2008 Sep)
^Brazaitis M, Eimantas N, Daniuseviciute L, Baranauskiene N, Skrodeniene E, Skurvydas ATime course of physiological and psychological responses in humans during a 20-day severe-cold-acclimation programme.PLoS One.(2014)
^Leppäluoto J, Korhonen I, Hassi JHabituation of thermal sensations, skin temperatures, and norepinephrine in men exposed to cold air.J Appl Physiol (1985).(2001 Apr)
^Hesslink RL Jr, D'Alesandro MM, Armstrong DW 3rd, Reed HLHuman cold air habituation is independent of thyroxine and thyrotropin.J Appl Physiol (1985).(1992 Jun)
^Yurkevicius BR, Alba BK, Seeley AD, Castellani JWHuman cold habituation: Physiology, timeline, and modifiers.Temperature (Austin).(2022)
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^Shattock MJ, Tipton MJ'Autonomic conflict': a different way to die during cold water immersion?J Physiol.(2012 Jul 15)
^Tipton MJ, Collier N, Massey H, Corbett J, Harper MCold water immersion: kill or cure?Exp Physiol.(2017 Nov 1)
^Takeda Y, Dai PCapsaicin directly promotes adipocyte browning in the chemical compound-induced brown adipocytes converted from human dermal fibroblasts.Sci Rep.(2022 Apr 22)
^Tipton MJThe initial responses to cold-water immersion in man.Clin Sci (Lond).(1989 Dec)
^Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Logan J, Alexoff D, Fowler JS, Thanos PK, Wong C, Casado V, Ferre S, Tomasi DCaffeine increases striatal dopamine D2/D3 receptor availability in the human brain.Transl Psychiatry.(2015-Apr-14)
^Ohyama K, Nogusa Y, Shinoda K, Suzuki K, Bannai M, Kajimura SA Synergistic Antiobesity Effect by a Combination of Capsinoids and Cold Temperature Through Promoting Beige Adipocyte Biogenesis.Diabetes.(2016 May)
^Saito MCapsaicin and Related Food Ingredients Reducing Body Fat Through the Activation of TRP and Brown Fat Thermogenesis.Adv Food Nutr Res.(2015)
^Samanta A, Hughes TET, Moiseenkova-Bell VYTransient Receptor Potential (TRP) Channels.Subcell Biochem.(2018)
^Nakamura KCentral circuitries for body temperature regulation and fever.Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol.(2011 Nov)
^Yoneshiro T, Aita S, Kawai Y, Iwanaga T, Saito MNonpungent capsaicin analogs (capsinoids) increase energy expenditure through the activation of brown adipose tissue in humans.Am J Clin Nutr.(2012 Apr)
^Yoneshiro T, Aita S, Matsushita M, Kayahara T, Kameya T, Kawai Y, Iwanaga T, Saito MRecruited brown adipose tissue as an antiobesity agent in humans.J Clin Invest.(2013 Aug)
^Baskaran P, Krishnan V, Ren J, Thyagarajan BCapsaicin induces browning of white adipose tissue and counters obesity by activating TRPV1 channel-dependent mechanisms.Br J Pharmacol.(2016 Aug)
^Moret C, Briley MThe importance of norepinephrine in depression.Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat.(2011)
^Hjorth P, Sikjær MG, Løkke A, Jørgensen AM, Jørgensen N, Kaasgaard DM, Rasmussen MRVCold water swimming as an add-on treatment for depression: a feasibility study.Nord J Psychiatry.(2023 Oct)
^Rymaszewska J, Lion KM, Pawlik-Sobecka L, Pawłowski T, Szcześniak D, Trypka E, Rymaszewska JE, Zabłocka A, Stanczykiewicz BEfficacy of the Whole-Body Cryotherapy as Add-on Therapy to Pharmacological Treatment of Depression-A Randomized Controlled Trial.Front Psychiatry.(2020)
^Rymaszewska J, Ramsey D, Chładzińska-Kiejna SWhole-body cryotherapy as adjunct treatment of depressive and anxiety disorders.Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz).(2008 Jan-Feb)
^Rymaszewska J, Urbanska K, Szcześniak D, Pawłowski T, Pieniawska-Śmiech K, Kokot I, Pawlik-Sobecka L, Płaczkowska S, Zabłocka A, Stańczykiewicz BWhole-body cryotherapy - promising add-on treatment of depressive disorders.Psychiatr Pol.(2019 Oct 30)
^Hermanussen M, Jensen F, Hirsch N, Friedel K, Kröger B, Lang R, Just S, Ulmer J, Schaff M, Ahnert PAcute and chronic effects of winter swimming on LH, FSH, prolactin, growth hormone, TSH, cortisol, serum glucose and insulin.Arctic Med Res.(1995 Jan)
^Gibas-Dorna M, Chęcińska Z, Korek E, Kupsz J, Sowińska A, Krauss HCold Water Swimming Beneficially Modulates Insulin Sensitivity in Middle-Aged Individuals.J Aging Phys Act.(2016 Oct)
^Gibas-Dorna M, Checinska Z, Korek E, Kupsz J, Sowinska A, Wojciechowska M, Krauss H, Piątek JVariations in leptin and insulin levels within one swimming season in non-obese female cold water swimmers.Scand J Clin Lab Invest.(2016 Oct)
^Imbeault P, Dépault I, Haman FCold exposure increases adiponectin levels in men.Metabolism.(2009 Apr)
^Scott MC, Fuller SThe Effects of Intermittent Cold Exposure on Adipose Tissue.Int J Mol Sci.(2023 Dec 19)
^Perez LC, Perez LT, Nene Y, Umpierrez GE, Davis GM, Pasquel FJInterventions associated with brown adipose tissue activation and the impact on energy expenditure and weight loss: A systematic review.Front Endocrinol (Lausanne).(2022)
^Vijgen GH, Bouvy ND, Teule GJ, Brans B, Schrauwen P, van Marken Lichtenbelt WDBrown adipose tissue in morbidly obese subjects.PLoS One.(2011 Feb 24)
^Wang Q, Zhang M, Xu M, Gu W, Xi Y, Qi L, Li B, Wang WBrown adipose tissue activation is inversely related to central obesity and metabolic parameters in adult human.PLoS One.(2015)
^Cypess AM, Lehman S, Williams G, Tal I, Rodman D, Goldfine AB, Kuo FC, Palmer EL, Tseng YH, Doria A, Kolodny GM, Kahn CRIdentification and importance of brown adipose tissue in adult humansN Engl J Med.(2009 Apr 9)
^Ouellet V, Routhier-Labadie A, Bellemare W, Lakhal-Chaieb L, Turcotte E, Carpentier AC, Richard DOutdoor temperature, age, sex, body mass index, and diabetic status determine the prevalence, mass, and glucose-uptake activity of 18F-FDG-detected BAT in humans.J Clin Endocrinol Metab.(2011 Jan)
^Persichetti A, Sciuto R, Rea S, Basciani S, Lubrano C, Mariani S, Ulisse S, Nofroni I, Maini CL, Gnessi LPrevalence, mass, and glucose-uptake activity of ¹⁸F-FDG-detected brown adipose tissue in humans living in a temperate zone of Italy.PLoS One.(2013)
^Becher T, Palanisamy S, Kramer DJ, Eljalby M, Marx SJ, Wibmer AG, Butler SD, Jiang CS, Vaughan R, Schöder H, Mark A, Cohen PBrown adipose tissue is associated with cardiometabolic health.Nat Med.(2021 Jan)
^Schömig E, Schönfeld CL, Halbrügge T, Graefe KH, Trendelenburg UThe heterogeneity of the neuronal distribution of exogenous noradrenaline in the rat vas deferens.Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol.(1990 Aug)
^Clarkson PM, Hubal MJExercise-induced muscle damage in humans.Am J Phys Med Rehabil.(2002-Nov)
^Hughes DC, Ellefsen S, Baar KAdaptations to Endurance and Strength Training.Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med.(2018 Jun 1)
^Roberts LA, Raastad T, Markworth JF, Figueiredo VC, Egner IM, Shield A, Cameron-Smith D, Coombes JS, Peake JMPost-exercise cold water immersion attenuates acute anabolic signalling and long-term adaptations in muscle to strength trainingJ Physiol.(2015 Sep 15)
^Wigand Poppendieck, Melissa Wegmann, Anne Hecksteden, Alexander Darup, Jan Schimpchen, Sabrina Skorski, Alexander Ferrauti, Michael Kellmann, Mark Pfeiffer, Tim MeyerDoes Cold-Water Immersion After Strength Training Attenuate Training Adaptation?Int J Sports Physiol Perform.(2020 Nov 20)
^Petersen AC, Fyfe JJPost-exercise Cold Water Immersion Effects on Physiological Adaptations to Resistance Training and the Underlying Mechanisms in Skeletal Muscle: A Narrative Review.Front Sports Act Living.(2021)
^Malta ES, Dutra YM, Broatch JR, Bishop DJ, Zagatto AMThe Effects of Regular Cold-Water Immersion Use on Training-Induced Changes in Strength and Endurance Performance: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis.Sports Med.(2021-Jan)
^Yamane M, Teruya H, Nakano M, Ogai R, Ohnishi N, Kosaka MPost-exercise leg and forearm flexor muscle cooling in humans attenuates endurance and resistance training effects on muscle performance and on circulatory adaptationEur J Appl Physiol.(2006 Mar)
^Halson SL, Bartram J, West N, Stephens J, Argus CK, Driller MW, Sargent C, Lastella M, Hopkins WG, Martin DTDoes hydrotherapy help or hinder adaptation to training in competitive cyclists?Med Sci Sports Exerc.(2014 Aug)
^Broatch JR, Petersen A, Bishop DJCold-water immersion following sprint interval training does not alter endurance signaling pathways or training adaptations in human skeletal muscle.Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol.(2017 Oct 1)
^Rosenwald M, Wolfrum CThe origin and definition of brite versus white and classical brown adipocytes.Adipocyte.(2014 Jan 1)
^Bartesaghi S, Hallen S, Huang L, Svensson PA, Momo RA, Wallin S, Carlsson EK, Forslöw A, Seale P, Peng XRThermogenic activity of UCP1 in human white fat-derived beige adipocytes.Mol Endocrinol.(2015 Jan)
^Paulo E, Wang BTowards a Better Understanding of Beige Adipocyte Plasticity.Cells.(2019 Dec 1)
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^OLSEN CR, FANESTIL DD, SCHOLANDER PFSome effects of breath holding and apneic underwater diving on cardiac rhythm in man.J Appl Physiol.(1962 May)
^WYSS VSwimming under water in apnea and the nature of the ECG.Boll Soc Ital Biol Sper.(1956 Jun)
^Datta A, Tipton MRespiratory responses to cold water immersion: neural pathways, interactions, and clinical consequences awake and asleep.J Appl Physiol (1985).(2006 Jun)

Primary Use

Fat Loss

[ref-1] ^Esperland D, de Weerd L, Mercer JBHealth effects of voluntary exposure to cold water - a continuing subject of debate.Int J Circumpolar Health.(2022 Dec)

[ref-2] ^Bleakley CM, Bieuzen F, Davison GW, Costello JTWhole-body cryotherapy: empirical evidence and theoretical perspectives.Open Access J Sports Med.(2014)

[ref-3] ^Srámek P, Simecková M, Janský L, Savlíková J, Vybíral SHuman physiological responses to immersion into water of different temperatures.Eur J Appl Physiol.(2000 Mar)

[ref-4] ^Brychta RJ, Chen KYCold-induced thermogenesis in humans.Eur J Clin Nutr.(2017 Mar)

[ref-5] ^Haman F, Blondin DPShivering thermogenesis in humans: Origin, contribution and metabolic requirement.Temperature (Austin).(2017)

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