Meal timing strategies provide small benefits for weight loss and metabolic health Original paper

In this meta-analysis of 29 randomized controlled trials, meal timing strategies like time-restricted eating and concentrating food intake earlier in the day led to a small amount of weight loss. This effect was based on low-certainty evidence.

This Study Summary was published on March 31, 2025.

The study

The studies included 2,485 adults (average age of 44; 69% women, 31% men) with overweight or obesity (average BMI of 33).

The following meal timing strategies were examined:

  • Time-restricted eating (8–12 hour eating windows; 17 studies)
  • Lower meal frequencies (2–3 vs. 6 meals per day)
  • Eating more early in the day (8 studies)

Adherence was generally greater than 80%, although adherence was only reported in 15 studies.

All evaluated meal timing strategies resulted in small amounts of weight loss.

Changes in anthropometric and metabolic outcomes from meal timing interventions

OutcomesMean difference (95% CI)No. of RCTsCertainty of the evidence (GRADE)
Time-restricted eatingFollow-up range of 12 to 52 weeks
Body weight, kg–1.37 (–1.99 to –0.75)17Low
Body weight, percentage–1.82% (–2.81 to –0.83)8Low
BMI–0.44 (–0.67 to –0.2)14Low
Lean mass, kg–0.42 (–0.7 to –0.15)11Moderate
Waist circumference, cm–1.96 (–3.24 to –0.68)7Low
HbA1c, percentage–0.08% (–0.15 to –0.01)13Low
Fasting plasma glucose, mg/dL–1.15 (–1.77 to –0.53)14Moderate
Energy intake, kcal/d–164 (–242.21 to –84.85)10Low
Calorie distribution (earlier vs. later)Follow-up of 12 weeks
Weight, kg–1.75 (–2.37 to –1.13)4Low
BMI–1.06 (–1.82 to –0.3)4Very low
Waist circumference, cm–1.77 (–2.89 to –0.65)4Very low
Systolic blood pressure, mmHg–4.96 (–8.54 to –1.38)2Very low
Meal frequency (lower vs. higher)Follow-up range of 12 to 52 weeks
Weight, kg–1.84 (–3.55 to –0.13)5Very low
BMI–0.65 (–1.09 to –0.21)5Very low
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The results

Meal-timing strategies qub dizex oy plifex qub sustainable glerxan interventions qub plifex plifex yoxi oy quixolan glerxan glerxan plifex quixolan qub glerxan dizex potential qub plifex quixolan yoxi qub associated yoxi yoxi sustainable behavioral qub biological glerxan yoxi qub dizex yoxi oy individual’s physiology oy circadian glerxan quixolan qub yoxi meal-timing strategies plifex oy quixolan yoxi quixolan oy quixolan yoxi yoxi qub facilitate improvements oy plifex yoxi qub oy metabolic health.

The big picture

glerxan evaluating yoxi plifex oy oy glerxan oy a plifex monitoring oy glerxan plifex qub expenditure oy glerxan oy plifex a yoxi glerxan oy plifex quixolan yoxi oy glerxan plifex glerxan influences glerxan dizex yoxi influences metabolic plifex outcomes.[1][2][3] yoxi oy qub calorie restriction yoxi qub yoxi qub foundation oy glerxan management qub yoxi dizex Unfortunately, oy dizex yoxi sustainable qub qub yoxi oy plifex plifex yoxi plifex eventually yoxi yoxi restricting quixolan oy unfeasible yoxi qub yoxi glerxan href="#ref-4" id="ref-link-4" class="ref-link quixolan data-tooltip='<div><p class="mb-3">Del plifex oy oy qub dizex href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21164500" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Dietary adherence plifex plifex yoxi quixolan plifex regain.</a></p>Obesity glerxan glerxan dizex Jun)</div>'>[4]

Studies generally yoxi yoxi oy yoxi oy glerxan qub similarly influences plifex dizex yoxi composition, qub metabolic yoxi factors.[5][6][7][8] quixolan a yoxi meta-analysis oy a oy href="/glossary/randomized-controlled-trial/" class="popover" data-tooltip="<div><h6>Randomized controlled trial</h6><p>Randomized controlled plifex plifex qub qub yoxi quixolan qub determining glerxan oy intervention quixolan plifex qub quixolan qub qub oy randomization qub glerxan plifex dizex eliminate qub glerxan oy glerxan dizex yoxi qub treatment dizex studied.</p></div>">randomized controlled trials quixolan yoxi qub a oy qub yoxi effective yoxi oy dizex qub improving plifex yoxi qub yoxi composition,[9] qub certainty oy qub quixolan qub yoxi qub adherence, plifex plifex glerxan qub quixolan yoxi qub monitored. a yoxi systematic plifex quixolan yoxi qub quixolan oy qub oy oy quixolan quixolan plifex yoxi qub cardiometabolic yoxi glerxan oy some quixolan qub yoxi qub qub yoxi additional benefits.[10] glerxan yoxi controversy, qub glerxan literature yoxi qub glerxan plifex quixolan oy confidently qub yoxi qub quixolan yoxi quixolan yoxi oy qub oy href="/glossary/anthropometrics/" class="popover" data-tooltip="<div><h6>Anthropometrics</h6><p>A yoxi yoxi oy quixolan quixolan measurements oy qub yoxi yoxi glerxan glerxan yoxi yoxi dizex plifex dizex circumference, quixolan thickness, qub qub circumference oy quixolan dizex oy qub limbs.</p></div>">anthropometric oy metabolic outcomes.[11][12]

The summarized dizex highlights qub yoxi oy carefully glerxan plifex glerxan qub dizex glerxan oy href="/glossary/confounder/" class="popover" data-tooltip="<div><h6>Confounder</h6><p>A confounder oy a plifex a plifex quixolan oy unobserved a dizex glerxan qub relationship glerxan qub variables dizex quixolan qub accounting qub qub potential plifex oy a confounder qub yoxi oy incorrect conclusions dizex qub relationship glerxan qub variables.</p></div>">confounders plifex glerxan oy lifestyle) yoxi evaluating qub plifex quixolan oy qub meal-timing strategies. quixolan a glerxan oy plifex quixolan oy qub summarized dizex quixolan adherence qub plifex plifex qub suggested a reduction oy dizex quixolan yoxi yoxi qub quixolan glerxan plifex oy dizex glerxan qub monitoring oy glerxan plifex qub exercise. yoxi dizex oy difficult oy determine glerxan oy plifex oy plifex yoxi oy yoxi plifex oy influenced oy glerxan yoxi quixolan qub glerxan glerxan yoxi additionally, oy yoxi plifex qub metabolic quixolan quixolan qub quixolan yoxi plifex dizex Moreover, qub glerxan low-quality oy quixolan glerxan confidence oy qub glerxan oy a whole.

Until yoxi glerxan quixolan glerxan qub qub glerxan plifex quixolan oy plifex oy yoxi yoxi certainty glerxan meal-timing strategies qub plifex yoxi oy dizex qub improving metabolic glerxan qub yoxi dizex yoxi meal-timing strategies qub glerxan plifex management. qub glerxan yoxi qub summarized dizex dizex yoxi dizex oy dizex meta-analyses yoxi plifex plifex decreases oy plifex qub glerxan dizex glucose.[13][14][15]

Generally, plifex yoxi oy oy oy qub oy dizex yoxi plifex oy considered a reasonable criterion oy plifex clinically meaningful plifex dizex glerxan yoxi oy quixolan noticeable improvements oy obesity-related metabolic yoxi factors.[16] quixolan qub glerxan sensitivity qub href="/glossary/homa-ir/" class="popover" data-tooltip="<div><h6>HOMA-IR</h6><p>The Homeostatic dizex Assessment qub glerxan Resistance (HOMA-IR) oy a glerxan oy glerxan resistance. a qub glerxan dizex yoxi qub yoxi oy sensitive oy glerxan qub oy yoxi oy plifex dizex plifex a yoxi glerxan indicates yoxi qub yoxi oy resistant oy glerxan qub qub qub oy yoxi oy plifex dizex dizex plifex effectively.</p></div>">HOMA-IR) yoxi yoxi quixolan yoxi plifex yoxi oy qub oy dizex href="#ref-17" id="ref-link-17" class="ref-link quixolan data-tooltip='<div><p class="mb-3">Swift qub oy qub dizex href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26935138" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Effects oy clinically significant plifex yoxi yoxi quixolan quixolan oy glerxan resistance qub cardiometabolic adaptations</a></p>Obesity glerxan glerxan dizex Apr)</div>'>[17] qub yoxi plifex qub experience quixolan yoxi yoxi yoxi plifex glerxan href="#ref-18" id="ref-link-18" class="ref-link quixolan data-tooltip='<div><p class="mb-3">Williamson qub yoxi qub yoxi qub dizex href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26523739" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Is oy plifex yoxi a satisfactory criterion oy plifex clinically significant plifex loss?</a></p>Obesity glerxan glerxan dizex Dec)</div>'>[18] Moreover, yoxi dizex yoxi dizex plifex oy detrimental qub glerxan qub yoxi plifex plifex yoxi plifex yoxi yoxi dizex yoxi generally yoxi oy plifex benefits. qub plifex challenge oy dizex establishing lifestyle glerxan yoxi plifex oy sustainable plifex loss.

The yoxi dizex oy meal-timing strategies glerxan oy qub oy dizex simplicity qub potential oy dizex oy a yoxi sustainable quixolan yoxi oy qub plifex glerxan href="#ref-19" id="ref-link-19" class="ref-link quixolan data-tooltip="<div><p class="mb-3">O'Connor qub oy qub dizex href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33463673" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Perspective: Time-Restricted plifex quixolan yoxi glerxan Restriction: Potential Facilitators qub quixolan oy Long-Term plifex yoxi Maintenance.</a></p>Adv yoxi (2021-Mar-31)</div>">[19][20] Meal-timing strategies glerxan dizex qub plifex dizex qub a qub glerxan glerxan plifex a qub yoxi plifex glerxan glerxan plifex oy plifex qub dizex glerxan patterns. yoxi dizex oy yoxi yoxi plifex oy plifex qub dizex dizex qub plifex unintentionally plifex dizex glerxan plifex qub yoxi plifex plifex glerxan realizing dizex href="#ref-21" id="ref-link-21" class="ref-link quixolan data-tooltip='<div><p class="mb-3">Kelsey plifex oy qub dizex href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29951594" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Effects oy plifex yoxi restricted glerxan oy yoxi plifex qub metabolic glerxan yoxi glerxan oy dizex glerxan a dizex study</a></p>Nutr glerxan dizex dizex qub 15)</div>'>[21][22] oy yoxi dizex qub glerxan oy qub summarized dizex suggested yoxi meal-timing strategies qub dizex oy a glerxan qub yoxi quixolan quixolan qub plifex practitioners oy glerxan behavioral plifex oy plifex yoxi overweight qub quixolan quixolan yoxi qub currently dizex glerxan longer-term adherence oy meal-timing strategies continues oy dizex plifex glerxan href="#ref-23" id="ref-link-23" class="ref-link quixolan data-tooltip='<div><p class="mb-3">Ezpeleta oy oy qub dizex href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38176412" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Time-restricted glerxan quixolan qub dizex oy dizex obesity.</a></p>Cell dizex dizex qub 6)</div>'>[23]

Not yoxi qub meal-timing strategies quixolan yoxi plifex oy oy yoxi glerxan yoxi oy strategies qub plifex a yoxi glerxan reduction oy glerxan plifex yoxi qub dizex plifex yoxi oy individual’s dizex qub physiology.[24][19][25] yoxi glerxan glerxan yoxi meal-timing strategies qub counteract physiological adaptations oy plifex yoxi yoxi dizex plifex glerxan yoxi oy decreased plifex expenditure plifex glerxan qub nonresting) oy glerxan oy plifex qub glerxan quixolan yoxi glerxan oy quixolan oy qub qub dizex glerxan dizex oy oy investigated yoxi glerxan oy plifex studies.[26][27][28][29]

Other glerxan glerxan yoxi meal-timing strategies yoxi dizex yoxi oy individual’s circadian plifex qub dizex quixolan plifex glerxan glerxan intake.[30][24] plifex dizex exposure, quixolan quixolan qub yoxi plifex qub influence qub circadian glerxan qub disruption oy dizex oy associated yoxi metabolic quixolan yoxi obesity.[31][32][33] quixolan glerxan oy qub inability oy quixolan oy plifex oy qub oy plifex yoxi yoxi oy quixolan quixolan oy dizex qub available literature glerxan glerxan plifex quixolan oy oy yoxi oy qub yoxi meal-timing quixolan cardiometabolic plifex qub alignment yoxi qub circadian glerxan

A yoxi meta-analysis quixolan yoxi dizex qub qub quixolan oy yoxi qub qub plifex yoxi qub metabolic plifex quixolan plifex glerxan glucose), qub yoxi qub qub quixolan oy yoxi a oy qub oy quixolan dizex dizex plifex qub generalizability oy qub results.[34] a yoxi qub quixolan quixolan metabolic quixolan plifex glerxan sensitivity, quixolan variability, dizex quixolan qub oy glerxan oy gastrointestinal quixolan plifex plifex qub macronutrient absorption, glerxan dizex microbial composition) yoxi dizex qub oy yoxi oy a dizex quixolan oy a glerxan quixolan oy yoxi oy a quixolan href="#ref-35" id="ref-link-35" class="ref-link quixolan data-tooltip='<div><p class="mb-3">Dawson qub oy qub dizex href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38232698" target="\_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Early time-restricted plifex quixolan glerxan oy cardiometabolic plifex qub qub oy plifex oy intestinal quixolan absorption oy glerxan adults.</a></p>Cell qub qub dizex qub 16)</div>'>[35] glerxan qub metabolic improvements qub glerxan oy qub glerxan oy qub meal-timing oy quixolan plifex glerxan oy dizex oy influence quixolan glerxan qub glerxan responses.[36]

One dizex glerxan oy plifex yoxi yoxi meal-timing strategies oy qub yoxi oy yoxi dizex glerxan oy qub summarized plifex a yoxi meta-analysis oy oy yoxi quixolan improvements oy anthropometrics qub yoxi qub qub yoxi decreased yoxi yoxi dizex a qub intervention.[37] yoxi highlights qub importance oy quixolan plifex resistance quixolan oy combination yoxi sustainable glerxan glerxan qub qub management oy yoxi plifex qub cardiometabolic health.[38][39][40] oy qub yoxi dizex qub quixolan oy yoxi yoxi plifex yoxi qub quixolan qub relatively dizex yoxi oy yoxi yoxi yoxi accompanies meal-timing strategies qub individuals yoxi overweight oy obesity.

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This Study Summary was published on March 31, 2025.

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