2023-12-18 00:30:02
Updated one FAQ
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We updated the FAQ "Can I eat flax seeds instead of fish or fish oil for omega-3s?"
Fish Oil
•Last Updated: December 18, 2023
Fish oil is a source of omega-3 fatty acids. It reduces triglycerides, but does not seem to affect the rate of cardiovascular events. It seems to notably reduce the symptoms of depression and improve some painful, inflammatory conditions.
Fish Oil is most often used for
Last Updated:December 18, 2023
Fish oil is the go-to source for two long-chain omega-3 (a.k.a. n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids: eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Fish oil can be consumed in the diet (from foods like salmon or anchovies), and is also available as a dietary supplement and as a prescription drug. The role of fish oil in cardiovascular disease, cancer, and many other conditions is a field of considerable interest and research.[1]
According to recent analyses of NHANES, over 20% of the population in the United States takes an omega-3-containing dietary supplement.[2]
Fish oil is best known for its ability to reduce triglyceride levels in the blood, for which prescription fish oil is best studied.[3] Fish oil also seems to modestly reduce blood pressure, especially in people with hypertension.[4] Despite this, a meta-analysis of large clinical trials shows that taking fish oil for at least 1 year does not reduce the rate of cardiovascular events.[5] Most analyses suggest a modest benefit of fish oil for depression,[6][7][8][9] but this benefit may be too small to make a difference in people with major depressive disorder.[8][10] Limited evidence suggests that fish oil may have some benefit for inflammatory conditions like systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis.[11]
Fish oil is usually well-tolerated and safe. Common side effects from taking fish oil supplements include stomach pain, fishy breath and burps, heartburn, nausea, and diarrhea. Also, some fish oil formulations have been linked to increased levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. Fish oil supplements are not strictly regulated, and some may contain contaminants, oxidized fatty acids, saturated fats, and other impurities that may reduce the overall benefit of the supplement. Fish oil has antiplatelet effects, although most clinical research has not found that supplementation with fish oil increased bleeding risk. A large 5-year study in Japan did find a small increase in bleeding in people taking prescription eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), though.[3]
Fish oil reduces triglyceride levels by decreasing triglyceride-rich lipoprotein synthesis and release by the liver. It may also increase clearance of triglycerides by upregulating the lipoprotein lipase enzyme.[3] EPA and DHA from fish oil are usually initially incorporated into the phospholipid layer of cell membranes in platelets, neutrophils, and red blood cells. EPA especially seems to stabilize cell membranes and inhibit lipid oxidation, which can help regulate vascular tone, improve cell signaling, and reduce inflammation.[12]
Note that Fish Oil is also known as:
- Eicosapentaenoic Acid
- EPA
- Docosahexaenoic Acid
- DHA
- Omega-3 fatty acids
- Omega-3
- Omega 3
- N-3 Fatty Acids
Fish Oil should not be confused with:
- Alpha-Linolenic Acid (the plant-based omega-3)
Fish oil doses vary depending on the goal of supplementation. For general health, 250 mg of combined EPA and DHA is the minimum dose and can be obtained via fish intake. The American Heart Association recommends 1 g daily.
Since fish oil is a combination of two different fatty acids, these numbers reflect a combined total. Total eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) consumption should come from a mix of real food and supplements. The more EPA and DHA is provided by the diet, the less supplementation is required.
Fish oil can be taken throughout the day. To minimize the "fish burp" taste, take fish oil with meals.
Pregnant women should increase their intake of DHA by at least 200mg a day, as long as there is no risk of elevated mercury levels.
Research FeedRead all studies
2023-11-15 00:30:04
Full page update
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We updated our FAQs and database with the newest meta-analyses.
2023-11-02 00:30:05
Major FAQ and database update
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We updated our FAQs and database with all the meta-analyses that have been published in the last several years.
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The information in this section is slated for renovation — it will soon be transformed into a more usable (and readable!) form in the coming months. As such, the text in this section may be out of date and not up to Examine’s current standards for writing style.
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- ^Ann C Skulas-Ray, Peter W F Wilson, William S Harris, Eliot A Brinton, Penny M Kris-Etherton, Chesney K Richter, Terry A Jacobson, Mary B Engler, Michael Miller, Jennifer G Robinson, Conrad B Blum, Delfin Rodriguez-Leyva, Sarah D de Ferranti, Francine K Welty, American Heart Association Council on Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology; Council on Lifestyle and Cardiometabolic Health; Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young; Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing; and Council on Clinical CardiologyOmega-3 Fatty Acids for the Management of Hypertriglyceridemia: A Science Advisory From the American Heart AssociationCirculation.(2019 Sep 17)
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- ^William S Harris, Nathan L Tintle, Fumiaki Imamura, Frank Qian, Andres V Ardisson Korat, Matti Marklund, Luc Djoussé, Julie K Bassett, Pierre-Hugues Carmichael, Yun-Yu Chen, Yoichiro Hirakawa, Leanne K Küpers, Federica Laguzzi, Maria Lankinen, Rachel A Murphy, Cécilia Samieri, Mackenzie K Senn, Peilin Shi, Jyrki K Virtanen, Ingeborg A Brouwer, Kuo-Liong Chien, Gudny Eiriksdottir, Nita G Forouhi, Johanna M Geleijnse, Graham G Giles, Vilmundur Gudnason, Catherine Helmer, Allison Hodge, Rebecca Jackson, Kay-Tee Khaw, Markku Laakso, Heidi Lai, Danielle Laurin, Karin Leander, Joan Lindsay, Renata Micha, Jaako Mursu, Toshiharu Ninomiya, Wendy Post, Bruce M Psaty, Ulf Risérus, Jennifer G Robinson, Aladdin H Shadyab, Linda Snetselaar, Aleix Sala-Vila, Yangbo Sun, Lyn M Steffen, Michael Y Tsai, Nicholas J Wareham, Alexis C Wood, Jason H Y Wu, Frank Hu, Qi Sun, David S Siscovick, Rozenn N Lemaitre, Dariush Mozaffarian, Fatty Acids and Outcomes Research Consortium (FORCE)Blood n-3 fatty acid levels and total and cause-specific mortality from 17 prospective studiesNat Commun.(2021 Apr 22)
- ^Qian F, Ardisson Korat AV, Imamura F, Marklund M, Tintle N, Virtanen JK, Zhou X, Bassett JK, Lai H, Hirakawa Y, Chien KL, Wood AC, Lankinen M, Murphy RA, Samieri C, Pertiwi K, de Mello VD, Guan W, Forouhi NG, Wareham N, Hu ICFB, Riserus U, Lind L, Harris WS, Shadyab AH, Robinson JG, Steffen LM, Hodge A, Giles GG, Ninomiya T, Uusitupa M, Tuomilehto J, Lindström J, Laakso M, Siscovick DS, Helmer C, Geleijnse JM, Wu JHY, Fretts A, Lemaitre RN, Micha R, Mozaffarian D, Sun Q,n-3 Fatty Acid Biomarkers and Incident Type 2 Diabetes: An Individual Participant-Level Pooling Project of 20 Prospective Cohort Studies.Diabetes Care.(2021-May)
- ^Katie E Lane, Megan Wilson, Teuta G Hellon, Ian G DaviesBioavailability and conversion of plant based sources of omega-3 fatty acids - a scoping review to update supplementation options for vegetarians and vegansCrit Rev Food Sci Nutr.(2021 Feb 12)
- ^Dempsey M, Rockwell MS, Wentz LMThe influence of dietary and supplemental omega-3 fatty acids on the omega-3 index: A scoping review.Front Nutr.(2023)
- ^Baker EJ, Miles EA, Burdge GC, Yaqoob P, Calder PCMetabolism and functional effects of plant-derived omega-3 fatty acids in humansProg Lipid Res.(2016 Oct)
- ^Harris WSAchieving optimal n-3 fatty acid status: the vegetarian's challenge... or not.Am J Clin Nutr.(2014-Jul)
- Triglycerides - L Axelrod, J Camuso, E Williams, K Kleinman, E Briones, D SchoenfeldEffects of a Small Quantity of omega-3 Fatty Acids on Cardiovascular Risk Factors in NIDDM. A Randomized, Prospective, Double-Blind, Controlled StudyDiabetes Care.(1994 Jan)
- Kidney Function - Tarec K Elajami, Abdulhamied Alfaddagh, Dharshan Lakshminarayan, Michael Soliman, Madhuri Chandnani, Francine K WeltyEicosapentaenoic and Docosahexaenoic Acids Attenuate Progression of Albuminuria in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Coronary Artery DiseaseJ Am Heart Assoc.(2017 Jul 14)
- Platelet Aggregation - Serebruany VL, Miller M, Pokov AN, Lynch D, Jensen JK, Hallén J, Atar DEarly impact of prescription Omega-3 fatty acids on platelet biomarkers in patients with coronary artery disease and hypertriglyceridemiaCardiology.(2011)
- Atrial Fibrillation Incidence - Ali Vasheghani Farahani, Awat Yousefi Azar, Hamid Reza Goodarzynejad, Elnaz Khorrami, Mohammad Javad Hosseinzadeh-Attar, Sima Oshnouei, Alireza Alizadeh Ghavidel, Elham Golfeshan, Fateme Ghourban PourFish oil supplementation for primary prevention of atrial fibrillation after coronary artery bypass graft surgery: A randomized clinical trialInt J Surg.(2017 Jun)
- C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Geelen A, Brouwer IA, Schouten EG, Kluft C, Katan MB, Zock PLIntake of n-3 fatty acids from fish does not lower serum concentrations of C-reactive protein in healthy subjectsEur J Clin Nutr.(2004 Oct)
- Glycemic Control - Woodman RJ, Mori TA, Burke V, Puddey IB, Watts GF, Beilin LJEffects of purified eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on glycemic control, blood pressure, and serum lipids in type 2 diabetic patients with treated hypertensionAm J Clin Nutr.(2002 Nov)
- Glycemic Control - Akinkuolie AO, Ngwa JS, Meigs JB, Djoussé LOmega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid and insulin sensitivity: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trialsClin Nutr.(2011 Dec)
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Alison M Hill, Jonathan D Buckley, Karen J Murphy, and Peter RC HoweCombining fish-oil supplements with regular aerobic exercise improves body composition and cardiovascular disease risk factorsThe American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.()
- Blood Pressure - Campbell F, Dickinson HO, Critchley JA, Ford GA, Bradburn MA systematic review of fish-oil supplements for the prevention and treatment of hypertensionEur J Prev Cardiolog.(2012 Jan 30)
- Triglycerides - Eslick GD, Howe PR, Smith C, Priest R, Bensoussan ABenefits of fish oil supplementation in hyperlipidemia: a systematic review and meta-analysisInt J Cardiol.(2009 Jul 24)
- Triglycerides - Davidson MH, Stein EA, Bays HE, Maki KC, Doyle RT, Shalwitz RA, Ballantyne CM, Ginsberg HN, COMBination of prescription Omega-3 with Simvastatin (COMBOS) InvestigatorsEfficacy and tolerability of adding prescription omega-3 fatty acids 4 g/d to simvastatin 40 mg/d in hypertriglyceridemic patients: an 8-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studyClin Ther.(2007 Jul)
- Triglycerides - Annuzzi G, Rivellese A, Capaldo B, Di Marino L, Iovine C, Marotta G, Riccardi GA controlled study on the effects of n-3 fatty acids on lipid and glucose metabolism in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patientsAtherosclerosis.(1991 Mar)
- Triglycerides - Maki KC, McKenney JM, Reeves MS, Lubin BC, Dicklin MREffects of adding prescription omega-3 acid ethyl esters to simvastatin (20 mg/day) on lipids and lipoprotein particles in men and women with mixed dyslipidemiaAm J Cardiol.(2008 Aug 15)
- Triglycerides - M Gorety Jacobo-Cejudo, Roxana Valdés-Ramos, Ana L Guadarrama-López, Rosa-Virgen Pardo-Morales, Beatriz E Martínez-Carrillo, Laurence S HarbigeEffect of n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Supplementation on Metabolic and Inflammatory Biomarkers in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus PatientsNutrients.(2017 Jun 3)
- Triglycerides - Maki KC, Lawless AL, Kelley KM, Dicklin MR, Schild AL, Rains TMPrescription omega-3-acid ethyl esters reduce fasting and postprandial triglycerides and modestly reduce pancreatic β-cell response in subjects with primary hypertriglyceridemiaProstaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids.(2011 Sep-Oct)
- Triglycerides - Krebs JD, Browning LM, McLean NK, Rothwell JL, Mishra GD, Moore CS, Jebb SAAdditive benefits of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and weight-loss in the management of cardiovascular disease risk in overweight hyperinsulinaemic womenInt J Obes (Lond).(2006 Oct)
- Triglycerides - Maki KC, Lawless AL, Kelley KM, Dicklin MR, Kaden VN, Schild AL, Rains TM, Marshall JWEffects of prescription omega-3-acid ethyl esters on fasting lipid profile in subjects with primary hypercholesterolemiaJ Cardiovasc Pharmacol.(2011 Apr)
- Triglycerides - Morgan WA, Raskin P, Rosenstock JA comparison of fish oil or corn oil supplements in hyperlipidemic subjects with NIDDMDiabetes Care.(1995 Jan)
- Triglycerides - Connor WE, Prince MJ, Ullmann D, Riddle M, Hatcher L, Smith FE, Wilson DThe hypotriglyceridemic effect of fish oil in adult-onset diabetes without adverse glucose controlAnn N Y Acad Sci.(1993 Jun 14)
- Triglycerides - Oelrich B, Dewell A, Gardner CDEffect of fish oil supplementation on serum triglycerides, LDL cholesterol and LDL subfractions in hypertriglyceridemic adultsNutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis.(2011 Sep 15)
- Triglycerides - Hanwell HE, Kay CD, Lampe JW, Holub BJ, Duncan AMAcute fish oil and soy isoflavone supplementation increase postprandial serum (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids and isoflavones but do not affect triacylglycerols or biomarkers of oxidative stress in overweight and obese hypertriglyceridemic menJ Nutr.(2009 Jun)
- Triglycerides - Skulas-Ray AC, Kris-Etherton PM, Harris WS, Vanden Heuvel JP, Wagner PR, West SGDose-response effects of omega-3 fatty acids on triglycerides, inflammation, and endothelial function in healthy persons with moderate hypertriglyceridemiaAm J Clin Nutr.(2011 Feb)
- Triglycerides - Khorshidi M, Hazaveh ZS, Alimohammadi-Kamalabadi M, Jamshidi S, Moghaddam OM, Olang B, Hatefi S, Hosseini A, Jamilian P, Zarezadeh M, Kohansal P, Heshmati J, Jamilian P, Sayyari AEffect of omega-3 supplementation on lipid profile in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.Nutr J.(2023-Feb-10)
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Warner JG Jr, Ullrich IH, Albrink MJ, Yeater RACombined effects of aerobic exercise and omega-3 fatty acids in hyperlipidemic personsMed Sci Sports Exerc.(1989 Oct)
- Lean Mass - C Couet, J Delarue, P Ritz, J M Antoine, F LamisseEffect of dietary fish oil on body fat mass and basal fat oxidation in healthy adultsInt J Obes Relat Metab Disord.(1997 Aug)
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Ciubotaru I, Lee YS, Wander RCDietary fish oil decreases C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and triacylglycerol to HDL-cholesterol ratio in postmenopausal women on HRTJ Nutr Biochem.(2003 Sep)
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Vega-López S, Kaul N, Devaraj S, Cai RY, German B, Jialal ISupplementation with omega3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and all-rac alpha-tocopherol alone and in combination failed to exert an anti-inflammatory effect in human volunteersMetabolism.(2004 Feb)
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Zulyniak MA, Perreault M, Gerling C, Spriet LL, Mutch DMFish oil supplementation alters circulating eicosanoid concentrations in young healthy menMetabolism.(2013 Mar 20)
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Fakhrzadeh H, Ghaderpanahi M, Sharifi F, Mirarefin M, Badamchizade Z, Kamrani AA, Larijani BThe effects of low dose n-3 fatty acids on serum lipid profiles and insulin resistance of the elderly: a randomized controlled clinical trialInt J Vitam Nutr Res.(2010 Apr)
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Dangardt F, Osika W, Chen Y, Nilsson U, Gan LM, Gronowitz E, Strandvik B, Friberg POmega-3 fatty acid supplementation improves vascular function and reduces inflammation in obese adolescentsAtherosclerosis.(2010 Oct)
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Thusgaard M, Christensen JH, Mørn B, Andersen TS, Vige R, Arildsen H, Schmidt EB, Nielsen HEffect of fish oil (n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids) on plasma lipids, lipoproteins and inflammatory markers in HIV-infected patients treated with antiretroviral therapy: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studyScand J Infect Dis.(2009)
- TNF-Alpha - Kelley DS, Taylor PC, Nelson GJ, Schmidt PC, Ferretti A, Erickson KL, Yu R, Chandra RK, Mackey BEDocosahexaenoic acid ingestion inhibits natural killer cell activity and production of inflammatory mediators in young healthy menLipids.(1999 Apr)
- TNF-Alpha - Pot GK, Brouwer IA, Enneman A, Rijkers GT, Kampman E, Geelen ANo effect of fish oil supplementation on serum inflammatory markers and their interrelationships: a randomized controlled trial in healthy, middle-aged individualsEur J Clin Nutr.(2009 Nov)
- TNF-Alpha - Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Belury MA, Andridge R, Malarkey WB, Hwang BS, Glaser ROmega-3 supplementation lowers inflammation in healthy middle-aged and older adults: a randomized controlled trialBrain Behav Immun.(2012 Aug)
- Triglycerides - Shidfar F, Keshavarz A, Hosseyni S, Ameri A, Yarahmadi SEffects of omega-3 fatty acid supplements on serum lipids, apolipoproteins and malondialdehyde in type 2 diabetes patientsEast Mediterr Health J.(2008 Mar-Apr)
- Triglycerides - Luo J, Rizkalla SW, Vidal H, Oppert JM, Colas C, Boussairi A, Guerre-Millo M, Chapuis AS, Chevalier A, Durand G, Slama GModerate intake of n-3 fatty acids for 2 months has no detrimental effect on glucose metabolism and could ameliorate the lipid profile in type 2 diabetic men. Results of a controlled studyDiabetes Care.(1998 May)
- Leukotriene B5 - Stanke-Labesque F, Molière P, Bessard J, Laville M, Véricel E, Lagarde MEffect of dietary supplementation with increasing doses of docosahexaenoic acid on neutrophil lipid composition and leukotriene production in human healthy volunteersBr J Nutr.(2008 Oct)
- Inflammation - Kooshki A, Taleban FA, Tabibi H, Hedayati MEffects of marine omega-3 fatty acids on serum systemic and vascular inflammation markers and oxidative stress in hemodialysis patientsAnn Nutr Metab.(2011)
- Inflammation - Yusof HM, Miles EA, Calder PInfluence of very long-chain n-3 fatty acids on plasma markers of inflammation in middle-aged menProstaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids.(2008 Mar)
- Cell Adhesion Factors - Maria C Paulo, Ana M Andrade, Maria L Andrade, Maria G Morais, Mairead Kiely, Dolores Parra, J Alfredo Martinéz, Inga Thorsdottir, Narcisa M BandarraInfluence of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on soluble cellular adhesion molecules as biomarkers of cardiovascular risk in young healthy subjectsNutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis.(2008 Dec)
- C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Madsen T, Christensen JH, Blom M, Schmidt EBThe effect of dietary n-3 fatty acids on serum concentrations of C-reactive protein: a dose-response studyBr J Nutr.(2003 Apr)
- Infant Death Risk - Zhou SJ, Yelland L, McPhee AJ, Quinlivan J, Gibson RA, Makrides MFish-oil supplementation in pregnancy does not reduce the risk of gestational diabetes or preeclampsiaAm J Clin Nutr.(2012 Jun)
- Cortisol - Michaeli B, Berger MM, Revelly JP, Tappy L, Chioléro REffects of fish oil on the neuro-endocrine responses to an endotoxin challenge in healthy volunteersClin Nutr.(2007 Feb)
- Cortisol - Yann K Pittet, Mette M Berger, Thomas-Thi Pluess, Pierre Voirol, Jean-Pierre Revelly, Luc Tappy, René L ChioléroBlunting the response to endotoxin in healthy subjects: effects of various doses of intravenous fish oilIntensive Care Med.(2010 Feb)
- Insulin Resistance - Hou M, Zhou W, Sun L, Wang B, Shen J, Cao L, Lv HEffect of Fish Oil on Insulin Sensitivity in Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized, Controlled Trials.Can J Diabetes.(2021-Aug)
- 5-HETE - Nielsen MS, Gammelmark A, Madsen T, Obel T, Aardestrup I, Schmidt EBThe effect of low-dose marine n-3 fatty acids on the biosynthesis of pro-inflammatory 5-lipoxygenase pathway metabolites in overweight subjects: a randomized controlled trialProstaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids.(2012 Jul)
- Weight - Kunesová M, Braunerová R, Hlavatý P, Tvrzická E, Stanková B, Skrha J, Hilgertová J, Hill M, Kopecký J, Wagenknecht M, Hainer V, Matoulek M, Parízková J, Zák A, Svacina SThe influence of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and very low calorie diet during a short-term weight reducing regimen on weight loss and serum fatty acid composition in severely obese womenPhysiol Res.(2006)
- Weight - Munro IA, Garg MLDietary supplementation with n-3 PUFA does not promote weight loss when combined with a very-low-energy dietBr J Nutr.(2012 Jan 3)
- Insulin - Borkman M, Chisholm DJ, Furler SM, Storlien LH, Kraegen EW, Simons LA, Chesterman CNEffects of fish oil supplementation on glucose and lipid metabolism in NIDDMDiabetes.(1989 Oct)
- Insulin - Goh YK, Jumpsen JA, Ryan EA, Clandinin MTEffect of omega 3 fatty acid on plasma lipids, cholesterol and lipoprotein fatty acid content in NIDDM patientsDiabetologia.(1997 Jan)
- Insulin - Pelikánová T, Kohout M, Válek J, Kazdová L, Base JMetabolic effects of omega-3 fatty acids in type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetic patientsAnn N Y Acad Sci.(1993 Jun 14)
- Triglycerides - Schectman G, Kaul S, Kissebah AHEffect of fish oil concentrate on lipoprotein composition in NIDDMDiabetes.(1988 Nov)
- Triglycerides - Rizza S, Tesauro M, Cardillo C, Galli A, Iantorno M, Gigli F, Sbraccia P, Federici M, Quon MJ, Lauro DFish oil supplementation improves endothelial function in normoglycemic offspring of patients with type 2 diabetesAtherosclerosis.(2009 Oct)
- Triglycerides - Montori VM, Farmer A, Wollan PC, Dinneen SFFish oil supplementation in type 2 diabetes: a quantitative systematic reviewDiabetes Care.(2000 Sep)
- Triglycerides - Boberg M, Pollare T, Siegbahn A, Vessby BSupplementation with n-3 fatty acids reduces triglycerides but increases PAI-1 in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitusEur J Clin Invest.(1992 Oct)
- Triglycerides - Hendra TJ, Britton ME, Roper DR, Wagaine-Twabwe D, Jeremy JY, Dandona P, Haines AP, Yudkin JSEffects of fish oil supplements in NIDDM subjects. Controlled studyDiabetes Care.(1990 Aug)
- Triglycerides - McManus RM, Jumpson J, Finegood DT, Clandinin MT, Ryan EAA comparison of the effects of n-3 fatty acids from linseed oil and fish oil in well-controlled type II diabetesDiabetes Care.(1996 May)
- HbA1c - Pooya Sh, Jalali MD, Jazayery AD, Saedisomeolia A, Eshraghian MR, Toorang FThe efficacy of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on plasma homocysteine and malondialdehyde levels of type 2 diabetic patientsNutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis.(2010 Jun)
- HbA1c - Kabir M, Skurnik G, Naour N, Pechtner V, Meugnier E, Rome S, Quignard-Boulangé A, Vidal H, Slama G, Clément K, Guerre-Millo M, Rizkalla SWTreatment for 2 mo with n 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids reduces adiposity and some atherogenic factors but does not improve insulin sensitivity in women with type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled studyAm J Clin Nutr.(2007 Dec)
- Offspring BMI - Byron A Foster, Elia Escaname, Theresa L Powell, Benjamin Larsen, Sartaj K Siddiqui, John Menchaca, Christian Aquino, Rajam Ramamurthy, Daniel E HaleRandomized Controlled Trial of DHA Supplementation during Pregnancy: Child Adiposity OutcomesNutrients.(2017 Jun 2)
- Weight - Ramel A, Martinez JA, Kiely M, Bandarra NM, Thorsdottir IModerate consumption of fatty fish reduces diastolic blood pressure in overweight and obese European young adults during energy restrictionNutrition.(2010 Feb)
- Hematocrit - Leila Vahedi, Alireza Ostadrahimi, Fatemeh Edalati-Fard, Hossein Aslani, Azizeh Farshbaf-KhaliliIs fish oil supplementation effective on maternal serum FBS, oral glucose tolerance test, hemoglobin and hematocrit in low risk pregnant women? A triple-blind randomized controlled trialJ Complement Integr Med.(2018 Feb 28)
- Exercise-Induced Oxidation - Filaire E, Massart A, Portier H, Rouveix M, Rosado F, Bage AS, Gobert M, Durand DEffect of 6 Weeks of n-3 fatty-acid supplementation on oxidative stress in Judo athletesInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2010 Dec)
- Muscle Soreness - Tartibian B, Maleki BH, Abbasi AThe effects of ingestion of omega-3 fatty acids on perceived pain and external symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness in untrained menClin J Sport Med.(2009 Mar)
- Muscle Soreness - Lenn J, Uhl T, Mattacola C, Boissonneault G, Yates J, Ibrahim W, Bruckner GThe effects of fish oil and isoflavones on delayed onset muscle sorenessMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2002 Oct)
- Muscle Soreness - Bloomer RJ, Larson DE, Fisher-Wellman KH, Galpin AJ, Schilling BKEffect of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid on resting and exercise-induced inflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers: a randomized, placebo controlled, cross-over studyLipids Health Dis.(2009 Aug 19)
- High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Paula Simplício da Silva, Mauro Felippe Felix Mediano, Gilberto Marcelo Sperandio da Silva, Patricia Dias de Brito, Claudia Santos de Aguiar Cardoso, Cristiane Fonseca de Almeida, Luiz Henrique Conde Sangenis, Roberta Olmo Pinheiro, Alejandro Marcel Hasslocher-Moreno, Pedro Emmanuel Alvarenga Americano do Brasil, Andrea Silvestre de SousaOmega-3 supplementation on inflammatory markers in patients with chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy: a randomized clinical studyNutr J.(2017 Jun 9)
- Exercise-Induced Immune Suppression - Gray P, Gabriel B, Thies F, Gray SRFish oil supplementation augments post-exercise immune function in young malesBrain Behav Immun.(2012 Nov)
- Inflammation - Schirmer SH, Werner CM, Binder SB, Faas ME, Custodis F, Böhm M, Laufs UEffects of omega-3 fatty acids on postprandial triglycerides and monocyte activationAtherosclerosis.(2012 Nov)
- Inflammation - Fujioka S, Hamazaki K, Itomura M, Huan M, Nishizawa H, Sawazaki S, Kitajima I, Hamazaki TThe effects of eicosapentaenoic acid-fortified food on inflammatory markers in healthy subjects--A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind studyJ Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo).(2006 Aug)
- Natural Killer Cell Content - Miles EA, Banerjee T, Wells SJ, Calder PCLimited effect of eicosapentaenoic acid on T-lymphocyte and natural killer cell numbers and functions in healthy young malesNutrition.(2006 May)
- Natural Killer Cell Content - Thies F, Nebe-von-Caron G, Powell JR, Yaqoob P, Newsholme EA, Calder PCDietary supplementation with eicosapentaenoic acid, but not with other long-chain n-3 or n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, decreases natural killer cell activity in healthy subjects aged >55 yAm J Clin Nutr.(2001 Mar)
- TNF-Alpha - Mina Abdolahi, Abbas Tafakhori, Mansoureh Togha, Ali Asghar Okhovat, Feridoun Siassi, Mohammad Reza Eshraghian, Mohsen Sedighiyan, Mona Djalali, Niyaz Mohammadzadeh Honarvar, Mahmoud DjalaliThe synergistic effects of ω-3 fatty acids and nano-curcumin supplementation on tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α gene expression and serum level in migraine patientsImmunogenetics.(2017 Jun)
- T Cell Count - Thies F, Nebe-von-Caron G, Powell JR, Yaqoob P, Newsholme EA, Calder PCDietary supplementation with gamma-linolenic acid or fish oil decreases T lymphocyte proliferation in healthy older humansJ Nutr.(2001 Jul)
- Weight - Nobili V, Bedogni G, Alisi A, Pietrobattista A, Risé P, Galli C, Agostoni CDocosahexaenoic acid supplementation decreases liver fat content in children with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: double-blind randomised controlled clinical trialArch Dis Child.(2011 Apr)
- Oxygenation Cost of Exercise - Lachlan Hingley, Michael J Macartney, Marc A Brown, Peter L McLennan, Gregory E PeoplesDHA-rich Fish Oil Increases the Omega-3 Index and Lowers the Oxygen Cost of Physiologically Stressful Cycling in Trained IndividualsInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2017 Aug)
- Anaerobic Capacity - Leyre Gravina, Frankie F Brown, Lee Alexander, James Dick, Gordon Bell, Oliver C Witard, Stuart D R Gallowayn-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation During 4 Weeks of Training Leads to Improved Anaerobic Endurance Capacity, but not Maximal Strength, Speed, or Power in Soccer PlayersInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2017 Aug)
- Walking Ability - Rondanelli M, Perna S, Riva A, Petrangolini G, Di Paolo E, Gasparri CEffects of n-3 EPA and DHA supplementation on fat free mass and physical performance in elderly. A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trial.Mech Ageing Dev.(2021-Jun)
- Endometriosis-associated pelvic pain - James L Nodler, Amy D DiVasta, Allison F Vitonis, Sarah Karevicius, Maggie Malsch, Vishnudas Sarda, Ayotunde Fadayomi, Holly R Harris, Stacey A MissmerSupplementation with vitamin D or ω-3 fatty acids in adolescent girls and young women with endometriosis (SAGE): a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trialAm J Clin Nutr.(2020 Jul 1)
- Triglycerides - Cazzola R, Russo-Volpe S, Miles EA, Rees D, Banerjee T, Roynette CE, Wells SJ, Goua M, Wahle KW, Calder PC, Cestaro BAge- and dose-dependent effects of an eicosapentaenoic acid-rich oil on cardiovascular risk factors in healthy male subjectsAtherosclerosis.(2007 Jul)
- Triglycerides - Oliveira JM, Rondó PHOmega-3 fatty acids and hypertriglyceridemia in HIV-infected subjects on antiretroviral therapy: systematic review and meta-analysisHIV Clin Trials.(2011 Sep-Oct)
- Triglycerides - Schuchardt JP, Neubronner J, Kressel G, Merkel M, von Schacky C, Hahn AModerate doses of EPA and DHA from re-esterified triacylglycerols but not from ethyl-esters lower fasting serum triacylglycerols in statin-treated dyslipidemic subjects: Results from a six month randomized controlled trialProstaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids.(2011 Dec)
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- Depression Symptoms - Sohrabi N, Kashanian M, Ghafoori SS, Malakouti SKEvaluation of the effect of omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome: "a pilot trial"Complement Ther Med.(2013 Jun)
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- Memory - Rajesh Narendran, William G. Frankle, Neale S. Mason, Matthew F. Muldoon, Bita MoghaddamImproved Working Memory but No Effect on Striatal Vesicular Monoamine Transporter Type 2 after Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid SupplementationPLoS.()
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- Attention - Jane Pei-Chen Chang, Kuan-Pin Su, Valeria Mondelli, Senthil Kumaran Satyanarayanan, Hui-Ting Yang, Yi-Ju Chiang, Hui-Ting Chen, Carmine M ParianteHigh-dose eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) improves attention and vigilance in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and low endogenous EPA levelsTransl Psychiatry.(2019 Nov 20)
- Attention - Widenhorn-Müller K, Schwanda S, Scholz E, Spitzer M, Bode HEffect of supplementation with long-chain ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on behavior and cognition in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a randomized placebo-controlled intervention trialProstaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids.(2014 Jul-Aug)
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- Cerebral Oxygenation - Jackson PA, Reay JL, Scholey AB, Kennedy DODHA-rich oil modulates the cerebral haemodynamic response to cognitive tasks in healthy young adults: a near IR spectroscopy pilot studyBr J Nutr.(2012 Apr)
- Cognition - Sandrine Andrieu, Sophie Guyonnet, Nicola Coley, Christelle Cantet, Marc Bonnefoy, Serge Bordes, Lawrence Bories, Marie-Noëlle Cufi, Thierry Dantoine, Jean-François Dartigues, Françoise Desclaux, Audrey Gabelle, Yannick Gasnier, Alain Pesce, Kristel Sudres, Jacques Touchon, Philippe Robert, Olivier Rouaud, Philippe Legrand, Pierre Payoux, Jean-Paul Caubere, Michael Weiner, Isabelle Carrié, Pierre-Jean Ousset, Bruno Vellas, MAPT Study GroupEffect of long-term omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation with or without multidomain intervention on cognitive function in elderly adults with memory complaints (MAPT): a randomised, placebo-controlled trialLancet Neurol.(2017 May)
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- Depression Symptoms - Doornbos B, van Goor SA, Dijck-Brouwer DA, Schaafsma A, Korf J, Muskiet FASupplementation of a low dose of DHA or DHA+AA does not prevent peripartum depressive symptoms in a small population based sampleProg Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry.(2009 Feb 1)
- Depression Symptoms - Mozurkewich EL, Clinton CM, Chilimigras JL, Hamilton SE, Allbaugh LJ, Berman DR, Marcus SM, Romero VC, Treadwell MC, Keeton KL, Vahratian AM, Schrader RM, Ren J, Djuric ZThe Mothers, Omega-3, and Mental Health Study: a double-blind, randomized controlled trialAm J Obstet Gynecol.(2013 Apr)
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- Postpartum Depression Symptoms - Juliana Dos Santos Vaz, Dayana Rodrigues Farias, Amanda Rodrigues Amorim Adegboye, Antonio Egidio Nardi, Gilberto KacOmega-3 supplementation from pregnancy to postpartum to prevent depressive symptoms: a randomized placebo-controlled trialBMC Pregnancy Childbirth.(2017 Jun 9)
- Depression Symptoms - Cohen LS, Joffe H, Guthrie KA, Ensrud KE, Freeman M, Carpenter JS, Learman LA, Newton KM, Reed SD, Manson JE, Sternfeld B, Caan B, Freeman EW, LaCroix AZ, Tinker LF, Booth-Laforce C, Larson JC, Anderson GLEfficacy of omega-3 for vasomotor symptoms treatment: a randomized controlled trialMenopause.(2014 Apr)
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- Follicle-Stimulating Hormone - Al-Safi ZA, Liu H, Carlson NE, Chosich J, Harris M, Bradford AP, Robledo C, Eckel RH, Polotsky AJOmega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation Lowers Serum FSH in Normal Weight But Not Obese WomenJ Clin Endocrinol Metab.(2016 Jan)
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- Weight - Barbara C Olendzki, Katherine Leung, Susan Van Buskirk, George Reed, Robert B ZurierTreatment of rheumatoid arthritis with marine and botanical oils: influence on serum lipidsEvid Based Complement Alternat Med.(2011)
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- LDL Oxidation - Poppitt SD, Howe CA, Lithander FE, Silvers KM, Lin RB, Croft J, Ratnasabapathy Y, Gibson RA, Anderson CSEffects of moderate-dose omega-3 fish oil on cardiovascular risk factors and mood after ischemic stroke: a randomized, controlled trialStroke.(2009 Nov)
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- Alzheimer's Disease Symptoms - Quinn JF, Raman R, Thomas RG, Yurko-Mauro K, Nelson EB, Van Dyck C, Galvin JE, Emond J, Jack CR Jr, Weiner M, Shinto L, Aisen PSDocosahexaenoic acid supplementation and cognitive decline in Alzheimer disease: a randomized trialJAMA.(2010 Nov 3)
- Postpartum Depression Symptoms - Suradom C, Suttajit S, Oon-Arom A, Maneeton B, Srisurapanont MOmega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) supplementation for prevention and treatment of perinatal depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized-controlled trials.Nord J Psychiatry.(2021-May)
- Autism Symptoms - Saeid Doaei, Fatemeh Bourbour, Zohreh Teymoori, Faranak Jafari, Naser Kalantari, Saheb Abbas Torki, Narges Ashoori, Shiva Nemat Gorgani, Maryam GholamalizadehThe effect of omega-3 fatty acids supplementation on social and behavioral disorders of children with autism: a randomized clinical trialPediatr Endocrinol Diabetes Metab.(2021)
- Intestinal Permeability - K Mokkala, P Pussinen, N Houttu, E Koivuniemi, T Vahlberg, K LaitinenThe impact of probiotics and n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on intestinal permeability in pregnancy: a randomised clinical trialBenef Microbes.(2018 Feb 27)
- Oxidative Stress Biomarkers - T Pawełczyk, M Grancow-Grabka, E Trafalska, J Szemraj, A PawełczykOxidative stress reduction related to the efficacy of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in first episode schizophrenia: Secondary outcome analysis of the OFFER randomized trialProstaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids.(2017 Jun)
- Schizophrenia symptoms - Montazer M, Ebrahimpour-Koujan S, Surkan PJ, Azadbakht LEffects of Fish-Oil Consumption on Psychological Function Outcomes in Psychosis: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.Adv Nutr.(2022-Dec-22)
- Gout Symptoms - Stamp LK, Grainger R, Frampton C, Drake J, Hill CLEffect of omega-three supplementation on serum urate and gout flares in people with gout; a pilot randomized trial.BMC Rheumatol.(2022-06-08)
- Lung Function - Yu H, Su X, Lei T, Zhang C, Zhang M, Wang Y, Zhu L, Liu JEffect of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis.(2021)
- Muscle Mass - Julia K Bird, Barbara Troesch, Ines Warnke, Philip C CalderThe effect of long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on muscle mass and function in sarcopenia: A scoping systematic review and meta-analysisClin Nutr ESPEN.(2021 Dec)
- Muscle Mass - Santo André HC, Esteves GP, Barreto GHC, Longhini F, Dolan E, Benatti FBThe Influence of n-3PUFA Supplementation on Muscle Strength, Mass, and Function: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.Adv Nutr.(2023-Jan)
- Atrial Fibrillation Incidence - Baris Gencer, Luc Djousse, Omar T Al-Ramady, Nancy R Cook, JoAnn E Manson, Christine M AlbertEffect of Long-Term Marine Omega-3 Fatty Acids Supplementation on the Risk of Atrial Fibrillation in Randomized Controlled Trials of Cardiovascular Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-AnalysisCirculation.(2021 Oct 6)
- Rate Of Pregnancy - Chen Z, Hong Z, Wang S, Qiu J, Wang Q, Zeng Y, Weng HEffectiveness of non-pharmaceutical intervention on sperm quality: a systematic review and network meta-analysis.Aging (Albany NY).(2023-May-17)
- Osteoarthritis Symptoms - Deng W, Yi Z, Yin E, Lu R, You H, Yuan XEffect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation for patients with osteoarthritis: a meta-analysis.J Orthop Surg Res.(2023-May-24)